Add blog: From Skiplists to B+ Trees: Making Valkey Sorted Sets More Memory Efficient by Andriciuc · Pull Request #665 · valkey-io/valkey-io.github.io

Andriciuc · 2026-09-10T15:09:13Z

Description

This PR adds a blog post describing the skiplist to B+ tree change that @rainsupreme has done.

In short, we describe why were skiplists replaced, by what, benchmarks and limitations.

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Commits are signed per the DCO using --signoff

By submitting this pull request, I confirm that my contribution is made under the terms of the BSD-3-Clause License.

@rainsupreme

…ry Efficient This PR adds a blog post describing the skiplist to B+ tree change that @rainsupreme has done. In short, we describe why were skiplists replaced, by what, benchmarks and limitations. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

coderabbitai · 2026-09-10T15:09:35Z

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Walkthrough

The change adds a blog post about Valkey 9.2 replacing skiplist storage for large ZSETs with the fbtree encoding. It covers the design, behavior, benchmarks, validation, limitations, and references.

Changes: fbtree blog post

Layer / File(s)	Summary
Post structure `content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/index.md`	Adds metadata and introduces the Valkey 9.2 fbtree announcement.
fbtree design and behavior `content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/index.md`	Describes fbtree internals, ZSET encoding behavior, throughput changes, and memory results.
Validation and limitations `content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/index.md`	Documents migration tests, integration coverage, delete behavior, recommended workloads, and references.

Suggested reviewers: crystalphamlf

Merge Risk: Moderate · previous review 61b1f

The post's performance results may be misapplied without enough workload and variability context; document those details before publication.

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Inline comments:
In `@content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b`+tree/index.md:
- Line 40: Rewrite the opening sentence so fbtree is the grammatical subject,
using the form “fbtree, short for FB+ Tree or Feature B+ Tree, has inner
nodes…”. Preserve the existing technical explanation about child features,
shared prefixes, SIMD comparison, and search behavior.
- Line 74: Update the memory comparison in the surrounding benchmark discussion
to identify 50.3B, 28.5B, and 32.0B as per-member overhead rather than total
per-item ZSET memory, and explicitly state that user data is excluded from these
jemalloc heap-profile measurements.
- Line 56: Update the benchmark introduction and corresponding results section
to document each command’s workload, including score updates for ZADD, 50/50
random additions and removals for ZREM, and 100-element scans for range
commands. Add a Workload column or concise footnotes, and state that confidence
intervals are 95%, with ±5% for ZRANDMEMBER, while preserving the existing
benchmark results.
- Line 52: Update the blog post wording to say “ZSET command behavior remains
unchanged” instead of claiming nothing changes, and change “return btree” to
“returns btree” in the OBJECT ENCODING description. Keep the surrounding
explanation of the visible encoding difference and listpack threshold unchanged.
- Line 16: Update the Markdown prose around the affected paragraphs so every
sentence begins on its own source line, including the content identified near
lines 16, 20, 26, 34, 40, 44, 52, 72, 74, and 82. Preserve all wording and
Markdown structure while splitting only at sentence-ending punctuation.
- Line 5: Add the missing `content/authors/rainvalentine.md` biography file, or
replace the author entry with an existing author whose biography file is
present. Keep the post’s authors metadata valid for every listed author.

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jaduffy

Contextual feedback; will leave additional comments once the diagrams are created

madolson · 2026-09-10T16:56:23Z

Not a review, but a pet peeve. zset somehow became the abbreviation for sorted sets even though it doesn't make any sense. The original meaning was "z dimension sets", which, what? We leak ZSET in the API in a bunch of places like OBJECT TYPE and the configs, so it's unavoidable, but I would really prefer we just call them sorted sets.

rainsupreme

Great start Dragos! Here's my first pass feedback - I still need to do a straight read-through still to see how the narrative goes without stopping every sentence to double check things 😆

Andriciuc · 2026-09-11T10:22:13Z

Not a review, but a pet peeve. zset somehow became the abbreviation for sorted sets even though it doesn't make any sense. The original meaning was "z dimension sets", which, what? We leak ZSET in the API in a bunch of places like OBJECT TYPE and the configs, so it's unavoidable, but I would really prefer we just call them sorted sets.

@madolson I'll use sorted sets wherever possible and preserve ZSET where the tech identifier itself matters (API/commands etc), across the blog, thank you for letting me know!

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Inline comments:
In `@content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b`+tree/index.md:
- Line 102: Update the sentence about reduced sorted-set memory overhead to
either provide the compared Valkey versions, measured numbers and units,
benchmark dataset/setup, and applicable Valkey version, or remove the
unsupported “nearly half” claim.
- Line 73: Update the leaf allocation description near the 512-byte capacity
statement to clarify that it stores up to 61 pointers to separately allocated
sds values, not the member data itself. Replace the claim that members are
packed into one allocation with wording that groups up to 61 value pointers
under a single leaf allocation.
- Line 65: Update the sentence describing the 61-way fanout and jemalloc
allocation sizing to qualify the “without wasting space” claim by architecture,
limiting it to 64-bit builds or explicitly noting the 32-bit innerNode
exception.
- Line 113: Update the benchmark provenance sentence near the referenced merged
implementation link to state that the measurements were taken on PR `#4206`’s
oi/pr3-fbtree-v2 branch and were not rerun for the merged commit.

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content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/images/fbtree-inner-node.svg is excluded by !**/*.svg
content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/images/fbtree-leaf-node.png is excluded by !**/*.png
content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/images/fbtree-memory-layout.png is excluded by !**/*.png
content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b+tree/images/skiplist-node.png is excluded by !**/*.png
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Also add first round of review content. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

greptile-apps · 2026-09-14T13:02:36Z

Confidence Score: 5/5

[Low impact] The PR appears safe to merge with no accepted new actionable findings.

Summary

This PR adds a technical blog post explaining Valkey 9.2’s replacement of the sorted-set skiplist with fbtree.

Describes the memory layout, cache behavior, traversal optimizations, and user-visible encoding change.
Presents memory and command-throughput benchmark results with workload context.
Adds and revises SVG diagrams illustrating skiplist and fbtree structures and operations.
Sets the post’s publication date to November 12, 2026 and credits both authors.

Diagram

%%{init: {'theme': 'neutral'}}%%
flowchart LR
    A[Large sorted set] --> B[Hashtable for member lookup]
    A --> C[fbtree for ordered access]
    C --> D[High-fanout inner nodes]
    D --> E[Packed leaf nodes]
    E --> F[Lower per-member overhead]
    D --> G[Fewer dependent memory fetches]
    E --> H[Linked leaves for range scans]

_{Reviews (4) · Last reviewed commit: "Refine skiplist diagrams and article cop..." · Reviewed by Greptile}

…valkey-io.github.io into add-zset-b+-tree-blog

This commit updates the Valkey sorted-set blog post with the new fbtree details: adds inner-node traversal and skiplist-vs-fbtree insertion SVGs, adjusts the publication date to Sept. 20, and marks the draft entry as draft. It also clarifies the inner-node lookup explanation, memory-efficiency wording, and benchmark provenance for the merged implementation. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

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Inline comments:
In `@content/blog/2026-09-20-from-skiplist-to-b`+tree/index.md:
- Line 3: Run a successful Zola build for the blog post and record the resulting
verification before merging, without making additional DCO changes.

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rainsupreme

Sorry for the delay! I've now given it that second pass read through. I'm liking how it's coming together!

I noted figures with different scaling - see if the final set of svgs I sent you via slack were different, and if they are lmk and I'll fix that.

Refresh the blog post to reflect the current date and tighten the explanation of skiplist vs. B+ tree memory behavior: - revise diagrams, - clarify the skiplist overhead math, - explain the dependent-memory-fetch cost, - distinguish the baseline from earlier ordered-set optimizations. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

@stockholmux

Restructures the post to the layout used by valkey-io#665: a post directory with co-located images, frontmatter without a time component, `**Note:**` callouts for caveats, tables for figures, and footnoted references. The slug is unchanged, so the published URL stays /blog/finding-hot-keys/. The post is rewritten around the same structure as valkey-io#665 — motivation, design, what changes for you, benchmarks with subsections, known limitations, call to action, references. Addressing @stockholmux: - Drop the scale-out framing from the intro; cover scale-up and standalone, where a hot key saturates the one thread serving it. - Link every command to its reference page. - State explicitly what the existing tools do not answer, rather than leaving it to dependent clauses. - Rewrite the missing-key sentence: HOTKEYS reports load whether or not the key exists. - Replace "Why Space-Saving" with "Balancing memory efficiency with accuracy". - Use first person singular for my own work and second person for the reader; drop "we". - Say "displaced from the summary" and note it is unrelated to keyspace eviction. - Add connective framing before the window-design rationale. - Retitle the cost section to "Throughput impact" and say "impact on throughput" where the subject was implicit. - Rewrite the memory sentence: HOTKEYS consumes only a few kilobytes regardless of keyspace size. - Move the benchmark environment into a table and say what was measured. - Fix the repro snippet so configuration precedes traffic. - Add an `INFO hotkeys` example with an explanation of how to read `hotkeys_last_window_samples`, including what a low sample count means. - Name two open items as good first contributions. Addressing @ranshid: - Lead the MONITOR cost with the documented figure: a single MONITOR client can reduce throughput by more than 50%. - Give the real limitation of `valkey-cli --hotkeys`: it is a full keyspace walk calling OBJECT FREQ, so it can take a long time, on top of requiring an *lfu maxmemory-policy. - Point at CLUSTER SLOT-STATS as the right tool for distribution and resharding decisions; HOTKEYS targets an application-level issue. - Explain the database field, including that the same key name in two databases occupies two slots and can appear twice. - Move the enablement and configuration detail out of the motivation and into its own section, after the design. - Correct the exact-counting argument: it is not a second copy of the keyspace, it is several bytes per stored key, which compounds at billions of keys. - Rewrite the Count-Min Sketch comparison so it is not attackable: CMS+heap is a standard top-k, and thresholds were #2965's choice rather than a CMS requirement. The argument for Space-Saving is one bounded structure, relative ranking, and a per-entry error bound. - Replace "calibrates itself" with the honest statement: the only knob is K, the bound is N/K, and more slots buy both a longer list and a tighter bound. - Say that setting hotkeys-top-k to 0 disables tracking. One place I did not follow the review: valkey-io#673 suggested that the performance results would show 100% sampling to be negligible, and the measurements do not support that. It is negligible at the 1% default (under 0.75% at every key size), but at 100% sampling the cost scales with key name length, reaching 12% at 512-byte names. The post reports the measured numbers and makes the guidance key-length dependent. Performance figures come from 270 measured runs on two c7g.16xlarge instances: sampling 1/5/10/25/50/75/100 across six key name lengths plus a top-k sweep, five repetitions each. Signed-off-by: Alon Arenberg <alonare@amazon.com>

@stockholmux

Restructures the post to the layout used by valkey-io#665: a post directory with co-located images, frontmatter without a time component, `**Note:**` callouts for caveats, tables for figures, and footnoted references. The slug is unchanged, so the published URL stays /blog/finding-hot-keys/. The post is rewritten around the same structure as valkey-io#665 — motivation, design, what changes for you, benchmarks with subsections, known limitations, call to action, references. Addressing @stockholmux: - Drop the scale-out framing from the intro; cover scale-up and standalone, where a hot key saturates the one thread serving it. - Link every command to its reference page. - State explicitly what the existing tools do not answer, rather than leaving it to dependent clauses. - Rewrite the missing-key sentence: HOTKEYS reports load whether or not the key exists. - Replace "Why Space-Saving" with "Balancing memory efficiency with accuracy". - Use first person singular for my own work and second person for the reader; drop "we". - Say "displaced from the summary" and note it is unrelated to keyspace eviction. - Add connective framing before the window-design rationale. - Retitle the cost section to "Throughput impact" and say "impact on throughput" where the subject was implicit. - Rewrite the memory sentence: HOTKEYS consumes only a few kilobytes regardless of keyspace size. - Move the benchmark environment into a table and say what was measured. - Fix the repro snippet so configuration precedes traffic. - Add an `INFO hotkeys` example with an explanation of how to read `hotkeys_last_window_samples`, including what a low sample count means. - Name two open items as good first contributions. Addressing @ranshid: - Lead the MONITOR cost with the documented figure: a single MONITOR client can reduce throughput by more than 50%. - Give the real limitation of `valkey-cli --hotkeys`: it is a full keyspace walk calling OBJECT FREQ, so it can take a long time, on top of requiring an *lfu maxmemory-policy. - Point at CLUSTER SLOT-STATS as the right tool for distribution and resharding decisions; HOTKEYS targets an application-level issue. - Explain the database field, including that the same key name in two databases occupies two slots and can appear twice. - Move the enablement and configuration detail out of the motivation and into its own section, after the design. - Correct the exact-counting argument: it is not a second copy of the keyspace, it is several bytes per stored key, which compounds at billions of keys. - Rewrite the Count-Min Sketch comparison so it is not attackable: CMS+heap is a standard top-k, and thresholds were #2965's choice rather than a CMS requirement. The argument for Space-Saving is one bounded structure, relative ranking, and a per-entry error bound. - Replace "calibrates itself" with the honest statement: the only knob is K, the bound is N/K, and more slots buy both a longer list and a tighter bound. - Say that setting hotkeys-top-k to 0 disables tracking. One place I did not follow the review: valkey-io#673 suggested that the performance results would show 100% sampling to be negligible, and the measurements do not support that. It is negligible at the 1% default (under 0.75% at every key size), but at 100% sampling the cost scales with key name length, reaching 12% at 512-byte names. The post reports the measured numbers and makes the guidance key-length dependent. Performance figures come from 270 measured runs on two c7g.16xlarge instances: sampling 1/5/10/25/50/75/100 across six key name lengths plus a top-k sweep, five repetitions each. Signed-off-by: Alon Arenberg <alonare@amazon.com>

@stockholmux

The previous revision aligned the post to the structure used by valkey-io#665 and answered the review comments, but in doing so it lost the character of the draft it was supposed to carry over: the incident that motivates the feature had been demoted to a parenthetical note, and the prose had flattened into documentation. This restores the narrative spine and voice within the same section skeleton. valkey-io#665 constrains the headings and their order, not the prose inside them, so both fit: the headings stay descriptive, and the investigation, the failed attempts, and the payoff run through them as a story again. The one real conflict was person. The draft used "we" throughout, which @stockholmux flagged for a single-author post, and the contributing guide prefers first or second person singular. The narrative is now first person singular, which keeps the voice and resolves the comment. Every review fix from the previous revision is retained, as are all the measured figures and both charts. Signed-off-by: Alon Arenberg <alonare@amazon.com>

rainsupreme

Read it top to bottom with publishing next week in mind. Two content fixes inline: the ZPOPMIN complexity sentence and the "never worse" claim in the limitations section, which traces back to my own earlier comment, sorry. One structural thought on the "Why" section (memory and performance threads are interleaved); take or leave. The limitations rewrite depends on whether compaction (
valkey-io/valkey#4526
) makes rc2, so it's a draft in the thread rather than a suggestion.

Thanks for carrying the writing on this, Dragos, it reads well. :)

- revise the fbtree explanation and benchmark details - clarify memory tradeoffs under delete-heavy workloads - update the article for Valkey 9.2 release-candidate testing + date of release Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

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Restructure the first chapter to organize presented information better, improve flow and fix inner node traversal image caption. Fixed issues with References, updated CTA to have link to valkey releases, shortened background compaction feature Reworded ZSETS to sorted sets Added a rough illustration comparing L1 to DRAM access Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

madolson

I think the blog is cool and interesting. I think the main section describing what the new datastructure looks like could use some cleaning up to better explain maybe what a B+ tree is briefly, what parameters we used, then the specific optimizations we made (features, linked lists, etc). Right now it sort of explains it out of order.

crystalphamLF · 2026-11-10T15:17:24Z

@Andriciuc how are we doing on this blog? are we still aiming to push this one for today?

Refresh the article’s explanations, benchmarks, and diagrams for Valkey 9.2, including measured memory savings and fetch counts. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

Andriciuc · 2026-11-11T10:12:40Z

@Andriciuc how are we doing on this blog? are we still aiming to push this one for today?

@crystalphamLF All comments are adressed, both review cycles are complete, updates have been applied to the structure, content and images based on Rain and Madolson's feedback, I believe this is ready to go with @madolson's approval.

madolson

I really like it now! Mostly some minor inline stuff, no structural suggestions. So putting it as approved. Feel free to take or leave all the suggestions.

Clarify skiplist level labels and node structure, and tighten the article's memory and benchmark explanations. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

Andriciuc requested a review from a team as a code owner September 10, 2026 15:09

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Andriciuc changed the title ~~Add blog: From Skiplists to B+ Trees: Making Valkey ZSETs More Memo…~~ Add blog: From Skiplists to B+ Trees: Making Valkey ZSETs More Memory Efficient Sep 10, 2026

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Merge branch 'valkey-io:main' into add-zset-b+-tree-blog

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Add structural images for fbtree and skiplist architectures

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Add structural images for fbtree and skiplist architectures

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Merge branch 'add-zset-b+-tree-blog' of https://github.com/Andriciuc/…

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madolson mentioned this pull request Oct 12, 2026

Adding blog post: Valkey 9.1 Cuts Sorted Set Memory #686

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Andriciuc changed the title ~~Add blog: From Skiplists to B+ Trees: Making Valkey ZSETs More Memory Efficient~~ Add blog: From Skiplists to B+ Trees: Making Valkey Sorted Sets More Memory Efficient Nov 10, 2026

Revise sorted set fbtree article with feedback from madolson

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Refresh the article’s explanations, benchmarks, and diagrams for Valkey 9.2, including measured memory savings and fetch counts. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

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Refine skiplist diagrams and article copy

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Clarify skiplist level labels and node structure, and tighten the article's memory and benchmark explanations. Signed-off-by: Dragos Andriciuc <andriciucdragos@protonmail.com>

valkeyrie-ops Bot requested a review from a team November 12, 2026 10:24

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